威威老師的 TOEFL Speaking 口說完全攻略 🎤🎓

課程導航

回到： TOEFL 總覽 | 跨技能： 閱讀 | 聽力 | 寫作

哈囉各位同學！我是威威老師。

來，先講真話：

「對著電腦說英文——還只有 45 秒——還要邏輯清楚、舉例完整——我做不到！」

如果這就是你——90% 學生第一次聽到 TOEFL Speaking 都這樣想！

但好消息：

🚨 威威鐵律： TOEFL 口說是最能用「模板」拿分的科目！

不是考你口才好不好

不是考你英文流利度

是考你能不能在時間內 + 結構完整 + 邏輯清晰地表達

只要——

✅ 模板背熟
✅ 過渡語用對
✅ 時間掌握好

基本分數就到手了！

今天威威老師帶你拆解：

🎯 4 大題型（Independent + Campus + Academic Read+Listen + Academic Lecture）
📋 每個 Task 的萬用模板——背了就用
⏰ 時間管理（15 秒準備 / 45-60 秒回答）
🎙️ 錄音 + 自我評分——練到自己滿意

繫好安全帶 🚂

一、測驗基本資訊

項目	內容
時間	約 16 分鐘
題數	4 題
題型	1 題獨立口說 + 3 題整合口說
評分方式	每題 0-4 分（Raw）→ 轉換為 0-30 分（Scaled）
評分重點	表達力（Delivery）、語言使用（Language Use）、主題發展（Topic Development）

💡 威威白話： TOEFL Speaking 是台灣考生最痛的科目——但最能短期衝刺！

為什麼？因為——

每個 Task 結構固定 → 模板可以套

時間極短（45-60 秒）→ 只能講重點

電腦評分 + 人工評分 → 模板化的回答反而符合期待

二、四大題型總覽

題號	類型	準備	回答	你需要做什麼
Task 1	Independent Choice	15 秒	45 秒	看到題目 → 表達個人意見
Task 2	Campus Situation	30 秒	60 秒	讀公告 (45s) + 聽對話 → 摘要學生立場+理由
Task 3	Academic (Read + Listen)	30 秒	60 秒	讀學術文章 (45s) + 聽講座 → 摘要概念+例子
Task 4	Academic (Lecture Only)	20 秒	60 秒	聽講座 → 摘要學術概念+教授給的例子

二、Task 1：獨立意見題 (Independent Choice)

題型格式

你會看到一個題目，通常問你偏好/同意與否，例如：

“Some people prefer to live in big cities. Others prefer to live in small towns. Which do you prefer and why?”
“Do you agree or disagree: it is better to have a small group of close friends than a large group of acquaintances?”

時間分配

時間	做什麼
0-15 秒 (準備)	選邊站 + 想 2 個理由 + 各配一個例子
0-8 秒 (回答開頭)	直接表明立場 (thesis statement)
8-22 秒	Reason 1 + Example 1
22-38 秒	Reason 2 + Example 2
38-45 秒	簡短總結 (optional)

答題模板

[立場] Personally, I prefer/agree that [topic].
[原因 1] First of all, [reason 1]. For example, [specific example].
[原因 2] Secondly, [reason 2]. To give you an example, [specific example].
[結尾] That's why I think [restate position].

Task 1 萬用句型庫

功能	句型
表明立場	”Personally, I believe that…” / “In my opinion, …” / “I would definitely choose…”
提出理由	”The main reason is that…” / “First and foremost, …” / “Another reason is…”
舉例	”For instance, …” / “Take… for example.” / “A good example of this is…”
轉折/讓步	”Of course, some people might argue…, but…” / “While it’s true that…, I still think…”
總結	”So overall, I feel that…” / “That’s why I believe…“

15 個常見題目 + 45 秒示範回答

Topic 1: City vs. Countryside

Question: Some people prefer living in a big city. Others prefer living in the countryside. Which do you prefer and why?

Model Response (45 seconds):

“Personally, I prefer living in a big city. First of all, cities offer much more career opportunities. For example, when I was looking for my first job, I found that most tech companies and startups were concentrated in Taipei. If I lived in the countryside, my options would be extremely limited. Secondly, I love the convenience and lifestyle of city life. To give you an example, I can order food delivery at 2 AM, take the MRT anywhere I want, and access medical care 24 hours a day. In a rural area, you’d need to drive an hour just to see a doctor. So overall, I think the advantages of city life far outweigh the peace and quiet of the countryside.”

Topic 2: Online vs. In-Person Classes

Question: Some students prefer taking classes online. Others prefer attending classes in person. Which do you prefer?

Model Response:

“Personally, I strongly prefer attending classes in person. The main reason is that face-to-face interaction makes learning much more effective. For instance, when I take a class in person, I can ask the professor questions immediately if I don’t understand something. Online, it’s much harder to get timely feedback. Another important reason is that in-person classes help me stay focused and motivated. To give you an example, last semester I took an online calculus course, and I found myself constantly checking my phone and getting distracted. In a physical classroom, the environment itself signals to my brain that ‘this is study time.’ That’s why I believe in-person learning is superior.”

Topic 3: Traveling Alone vs. Traveling with Others

Question: Some people enjoy traveling alone. Others prefer traveling with friends or family. Which do you prefer?

Model Response:

“I definitely prefer traveling with friends or family. First of all, traveling with others makes the experience more meaningful through shared memories. For example, when I went to Japan with my best friend last year, we still laugh about the time we got completely lost in Shinjuku Station. That memory is something I treasure and it wouldn’t exist if I traveled alone. Secondly, it’s much more practical to travel with others. You can split costs on accommodation and meals, and there’s someone to watch your luggage when you use the restroom. To give you an example, on that same Japan trip, sharing a hotel room saved each of us almost forty percent compared to booking alone. So for both emotional and practical reasons, I choose traveling with companions.”

Topic 4: Saving Money vs. Spending on Experiences

Question: Some people prefer to save money for the future. Others prefer to spend money on experiences like traveling and dining out. Which do you think is better?

Model Response:

“I believe that spending money on experiences is better, though I do think saving is important too. The main reason is that experiences create lasting happiness. For example, psychological research shows that the joy from buying material things fades quickly, but memories of experiences actually become sweeter over time. When I look back, I remember that concert I went to three years ago far more fondly than any clothing I bought around the same time. Another reason is that experiences help you grow as a person. To give you an example, when I traveled abroad for the first time, I learned to navigate unfamiliar environments, communicate across language barriers, and become more independent. These are skills that will benefit me for the rest of my life. So while saving is wise, investing in experiences has greater long-term value.”

Topic 5: Learning a New Skill — Self-Taught vs. Taking a Class

Question: Do you think it’s better to learn a new skill by yourself or by taking a class with a teacher?

Model Response:

“I think taking a class with a teacher is generally the better approach. First of all, a good teacher can correct your mistakes before they become bad habits. For example, when I tried to learn guitar by myself using YouTube, I developed a poor wrist position that I didn’t even know was wrong. It wasn’t until I took an actual class that the teacher immediately pointed it out and corrected it. Secondly, classes provide structure and accountability. To give you an example, I tried learning programming on my own three different times and gave up each time because I lacked a clear learning path and no one was expecting me to show up. When I finally enrolled in a structured course, I completed it in two months. So I believe having a teacher and a structured environment makes a huge difference.”

Topic 6: Working in a Team vs. Working Alone

Question: Some people prefer working on projects in a team. Others prefer working alone. Which do you prefer?

Model Response:

“I generally prefer working in a team. The biggest advantage is that you get diverse perspectives and ideas. For example, in my university marketing class, I was once part of a five-person team working on a campaign proposal. My idea was pretty conventional, but a teammate from a design background suggested a completely different visual approach that ended up being the centerpiece of our project. I never would have thought of that on my own. Another reason is that teamwork helps you learn collaboration skills that are essential in the workplace. To give you an example, through that same project, I learned how to compromise when team members disagreed and how to communicate my ideas clearly under pressure. These are skills you simply cannot develop working alone. So for creativity and personal growth, I prefer teamwork.”

Topic 7: Reading News Online vs. Traditional Newspapers

Question: Do you prefer to get news from online sources or from traditional printed newspapers?

Model Response:

“I definitely prefer getting news from online sources. First and foremost, online news is incredibly accessible and up-to-date. For example, when a major event happens — like an earthquake or an election result — I can get updates in real-time on my phone, whereas a printed newspaper won’t cover it until the next day, by which time I might have already heard about it from other sources. Another reason is that online platforms allow me to customize my news feed according to my interests. To give you an example, I use an app that aggregates news from multiple sources and lets me prioritize topics like technology and education, while filtering out content I’m not interested in, such as sports or celebrity gossip. Traditional newspapers force you to read whatever the editor has chosen. So for speed and personalization, online news wins hands down.”

Topic 8: Studying in the Morning vs. at Night

Question: Some students prefer studying in the morning. Others prefer studying late at night. What is your preference?

Model Response:

“I strongly prefer studying in the morning. The main reason is that I have much better mental clarity and focus early in the day. For example, when I try to study complex material like mathematics or philosophy at 11 PM, I find myself reading the same sentence five times without actually absorbing anything. But when I study the exact same material at 7 AM, I can grasp concepts much more quickly and remember them better. Another reason is that studying in the morning leaves my evenings free for relaxation and social activities. To give you an example, during exam periods, I wake up at six, study for three focused hours, and then I’m done by mid-morning. I can spend the rest of the day doing whatever I want without guilt. My friends who study at night are often stressed throughout the entire day. So for productivity and work-life balance, morning studying works best for me.”

Topic 9: Giving Gifts — Practical vs. Sentimental

Question: Some people think gifts should be practical and useful. Others think gifts should be personal and meaningful. Which view do you agree with?

Model Response:

“I believe the best gifts are personal and meaningful rather than merely practical. First of all, a meaningful gift shows that you truly understand and care about the person. For example, for my mom’s birthday last year, instead of buying her an expensive kitchen appliance — which would have been practical — I made a photo album documenting our family trips from the past twenty years. She literally cried when she opened it. No practical gift could have created that emotional connection. Secondly, practical gifts can actually be inappropriate because you might misjudge what someone actually needs. To give you an example, my aunt once gave me a rice cooker because she thought it would be useful. But I already had one, so it just sat in my closet unused. A thoughtful, personal gift, even if it’s small, is far more memorable. So I definitely think meaning matters more than utility when it comes to gifts.”

Topic 10: Fast Food vs. Home-Cooked Meals

Question: Some people eat fast food regularly. Others prefer cooking meals at home. Which approach to eating do you prefer?

Model Response:

“I prefer cooking meals at home for several reasons. First and most importantly, home-cooked meals are much healthier. For example, when I cook for myself, I can control exactly how much oil, salt, and sugar goes into my food. When I eat fast food, I have no idea what’s in it, and the nutritional information on the menu often shocks me — a single burger meal can contain over a thousand calories. Secondly, cooking at home saves a significant amount of money in the long run. To give you an example, I calculated that making a simple pasta dish at home costs me about forty Taiwanese dollars in ingredients, while ordering something similar from a restaurant would cost at least two hundred dollars. Over a month, that difference really adds up. So for both health and financial reasons, home cooking is the clear winner.”

Topic 11: Watching Movies at Home vs. in the Theater

Question: Do you prefer watching movies at home or in a movie theater?

Model Response:

“I prefer watching movies at home overall. The biggest advantage is comfort and convenience. For example, when I watch at home, I can pause the movie whenever I want to get a snack or use the bathroom — in a theater, I either miss part of the movie or sit there uncomfortable. I can also watch in my pajamas under a warm blanket, which is way cozier than sitting in a cold theater. Another reason is that watching at home is much more social. To give you an example, when my friends come over for a movie night, we can actually talk and react to the movie together. In a theater, you have to be completely silent, which makes it a very isolated experience despite being surrounded by people. The only thing theaters do better is the big screen and surround sound, but honestly, with modern TVs and sound systems, the gap is closing. So for comfort, flexibility, and sociability, home wins.”

Topic 12: Job with High Salary vs. Job You Enjoy

Question: Would you rather have a job that pays very well but is not very interesting, or a job that is interesting but does not pay very well?

Model Response:

“I would rather choose a job that is interesting, even if it pays less. First of all, you spend a huge portion of your life working — roughly one third of your waking hours. If you’re miserable during that time, no amount of money can compensate. For example, my uncle was a highly paid corporate lawyer who made great money but absolutely hated his job. He was stressed all the time, gained weight, and his health suffered. He eventually quit and became a high school teacher earning half the salary, but he is genuinely happy now. Another reason is that when you truly enjoy your work, you’re more likely to excel at it and advance in your career anyway. To give you an example, a friend of mine loved graphic design so much that she would spend her free time practicing and learning new skills. Within five years, she had built such a strong portfolio that she was actually earning more than many people in “boring” high-paying jobs. Passion eventually leads to proficiency, and proficiency leads to financial rewards. So I believe happiness at work should come first.”

Topic 13: Public Transportation vs. Driving a Car

Question: Some people prefer using public transportation. Others prefer driving their own car. What is your preference?

Model Response:

“In a city like Taipei, I definitely prefer public transportation. First and foremost, it eliminates the stress of driving. For example, when I used to drive to work, I would spend forty minutes stuck in traffic every morning, getting increasingly frustrated. Now I take the MRT, and I can read, listen to podcasts, or reply to messages during my commute — it’s actually productive time rather than wasted time. Secondly, public transit is significantly better for the environment. To give you an example, a full MRT train replaces potentially hundreds of individual cars on the road, which means much less carbon emissions and better air quality for everyone. Finally, owning and maintaining a car is incredibly expensive when you add up insurance, fuel, parking fees, and repairs. So for convenience, environmental reasons, and cost savings, I choose public transportation.”

Topic 14: Learning Through Reading vs. Learning Through Doing

Question: Do you think people learn better by reading about something or by actually doing it?

Model Response:

“I strongly believe that people learn better through hands-on experience. The main reason is that doing something engages multiple senses and creates stronger memory connections. For example, I could read ten books about how to ride a bicycle, but I would never actually learn until I got on one and started pedaling. Reading gives you the theory, but experience gives you the muscle memory and intuitive understanding. Another reason is that real-world practice reveals gaps in your knowledge that you wouldn’t notice through reading alone. To give you an example, I read extensively about giving presentations before my first one, but I completely froze when the audience started asking unexpected questions — something no book had prepared me for. It took actually presenting multiple times to become competent. So while reading provides a foundation, deep learning requires doing.”

Topic 15: Fixed Schedule vs. Flexible Schedule

Question: Some people prefer having a fixed daily schedule. Others prefer being flexible and doing things spontaneously. Which do you prefer?

Model Response:

“I prefer having a fixed daily schedule for several reasons. First of all, a structured schedule dramatically increases my productivity. For example, when I block out specific hours for studying, exercising, and relaxing, I find that I accomplish much more than on days when I just ‘go with the flow.’ Without a schedule, I tend to waste time deciding what to do next. Secondly, a routine reduces decision fatigue, which I find mentally exhausting. To give you an example, I eat the same breakfast every morning and go to the gym at the same time. Having these activities predetermined means I save my mental energy for more important decisions, like academic or work-related tasks. Research by psychologists like Roy Baumeister supports this — it shows that making fewer trivial decisions actually improves the quality of important decisions. So for efficiency and mental clarity, I choose structure over spontaneity.”

三、Task 2：校園公告 + 對話整合題

題型格式

閱讀 (45 秒)：一篇校園公告（學校新政策、設施變更、活動通知），約 100 字
聽力 (60-90 秒)：兩個學生對話討論這個公告 — 一人表達立場（同意/反對）+ 2 個理由
回答 (60 秒)：摘要公告內容 + 學生立場 + 2 個理由

答題模板 (Task 2)

[公告摘要] The announcement/article states that [change/proposal]. According to the text, [reason 1] and [reason 2].

[對話立場] The man/woman in the conversation [agrees/disagrees] with this [change/proposal], and he/she provides two reasons.

[理由 1] First, he/she says that [first reason]. To elaborate, [details from conversation].

[理由 2] Second, he/she points out that [second reason]. Specifically, [details from conversation].

[結尾] That's how the student feels about the announcement.

Task 2 筆記框架

閱讀時：

ANNOUNCEMENT:
What: __________
Why: 1. ________  2. ________

聽力時：

STUDENT: (M / W)  agrees / disagrees
  R1: __________
    detail: ________
  R2: __________
    detail: ________

Task 2 必備過渡語

功能	用語
介紹閱讀內容	”According to the announcement…” / “The notice explains that…” / “The article proposes that…”
過渡到聽力	”The student in the listening section, however, disagrees with this idea.” / “The man supports the proposal for two reasons.”
提出理由	”His first point is that…” / “Secondly, he argues that…” / “To support this, he mentions that…”
補充細節	”To be more specific, …” / “He elaborates by saying…” / “This means that…”

四、Task 3：學術閱讀 + 講座整合題

題型格式

閱讀 (45-50 秒)：一篇學術短文（定義一個概念/術語），約 100 字
聽力 (60-90 秒)：教授用 1-2 個具體例子解釋這個概念
回答 (60 秒)：解釋學術概念 + 摘要教授舉的例子

答題模板 (Task 3)

[學術概念] The reading passage introduces the concept of [term], which refers to [definition in your own words].

[教授例子] In the lecture, the professor provides [an example / two examples] to illustrate this concept.

[例子說明] The professor talks about [example description]. [Explain how this example demonstrates the concept].

[第二個例子 — 如果有的話] Additionally, the professor discusses [second example]. [Explain connection to concept].

[結尾] This example clearly shows how [term/concept] works in practice.

Task 3 筆記框架

閱讀：

CONCEPT: __________
DEFINITION: __________
Key characteristic: __________

聽力：

PROFESSOR'S EXAMPLE(S):
Example 1: __________
  → How it shows the concept: __________
Example 2 (if any): __________
  → How it shows the concept: __________

五、Task 4：純學術講座摘要題

題型格式

聽力 (90-120 秒)：一段學術講座，教授用 2 個面向/2 個例子解釋某主題
回答 (60 秒)：摘要教授的主要觀點 + 例子
注意：這題沒有閱讀！

答題模板 (Task 4)

[主題] The professor discusses [main topic], focusing on [two aspects / two types / two examples].

[面向 1] The first [aspect/type/example] is [description]. The professor explains that [details and significance].

[面向 2] The second [aspect/type/example] is [description]. According to the lecture, [details and significance].

[結尾] These two [aspects/examples] illustrate how [main topic] functions.

Task 4 筆記框架

聽力：

TOPIC: __________

SUBTOPIC 1: __________
  details / example: __________
  significance: __________

SUBTOPIC 2: __________
  details / example: __________
  significance: __________

六、台灣學生常見發音問題

子音篇

問題	說明	練習方法
L vs. R	light vs. right、collect vs. correct	L：舌尖頂上顎。R：舌尖向後捲但不碰到。練習 “Red lorry, yellow lorry.”
TH 有聲/無聲	think (無聲 θ) vs. this (有聲 ð)	舌尖輕輕放在上下齒之間吹氣。練習 “Thirty-three thieves thought of thirty-three things.”
V vs. B	very vs. berry、vote vs. boat	V：上齒碰下唇。B：雙唇合攏。練習 “Vivian values vibrant vacations.”
S vs. ʃ (sh)	see vs. she、sip vs. ship	SH：嘟嘴、舌頭往後。練習 “She sells sea shells by the sea shore.”
N vs. ŋ (ng)	/n/ 後加 /g/ 是台灣人的習慣（sing→sin-ge）	最後的 ng 不要加 g 音。練習 “Singing songs is a long thing.”
Z 音	zoo、rose、music 中的 z 音常被唸成 s	Z = 喉嚨震動的 S。手放喉嚨感受震動。練習 “Zoe’s zippy zebra zoomed.”

母音篇

問題	說明	練習
長短母音	sheep vs. ship、pool vs. pull、beach vs. bitch (小心！)	台灣學生常把長短母音唸一樣長。練習時刻意拉長長母音。
æ (cat)	cat、apple、bad 中的短 a	嘴巴張大！下巴往下。很多台灣人唸成 “eh”。練習 “The fat cat sat on the black mat.”
ə (schwa)	about、problem、famous 中的弱母音	最懶的母音，嘴巴放鬆輕輕帶過。台灣人常每個音節唸一樣重。
雙母音不足	go /oʊ/、make /eɪ/、time /aɪ/	需要從第一個母音滑到第二個母音。練習誇張的滑動。

節奏與語調

問題	說明	練習方法
音節等重	台灣人每個音節一樣重、一樣長	英文是 stress-timed language — 重音音節長、弱音節壓縮。練習說 “I’m going to the store” → “I’m GONna t’the STORE”
尾音丟失	-ed、-s、-t 的尾音常被吃掉	刻意放慢結尾。錄音回聽自己有沒有唸到最後一個音。
語調平淡	台灣學生的英文常語氣平坦、沒有高低起伏	模仿母語者的語調。找一個 TED Talk 講者，跟讀 (shadowing) 他們的語調。
連音不會	”want to” → “wanna”、“going to” → “gonna”	聽流行歌、看美劇學連音。但 TOEFL 口說不要用太口語的連音，正式回答保持清楚即可。

威威老師小提醒

發音不需要完美到像母語者 — 那需要多年的 immersion。TOEFL 口說的評分標準是 “generally intelligible”（大致能被理解）。只要你的發音不至於讓考官聽不懂，就不會被嚴重扣分。重點放在流暢度和內容，發音有基本清晰度就好。

七、五回完整練習套組

每個練習套組包含 Task 1-4 的全部材料 + 示範回答。

Practice Set 1

Task 1 — Independent

Question: Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “It is more important to be well-liked by others than to be successful in your career.” Use specific reasons and examples.

Model Response:

“I disagree with this statement. I believe that being successful in your career is ultimately more important than being liked by everyone. First of all, career success provides you with the financial stability and independence that allows you to live life on your own terms. For example, if you are financially independent, you can help your family, travel when you want, and not have to constantly worry about money. This kind of security directly impacts your quality of life. Secondly, when you focus too much on being liked by others, you often end up compromising your own values and goals. To give you an example, I once had a colleague who always said yes to every request from coworkers because she wanted to be liked. She ended up doing everyone else’s work, got burnt out, and was eventually passed over for promotion because she never had time for her own projects. Her desire to be popular actually hurt her career. So I believe career success is more important than universal popularity — it gives you real freedom and protects you from people-pleasing at your own expense.”

Task 2 — Campus Announcement + Conversation

Reading (45 seconds):

Notice from University Housing Office: Starting next semester, all first-year students will be required to live in on-campus dormitories. The university believes this policy will help new students better integrate into campus life and improve their academic performance. Studies show that students who live on campus have higher GPAs and are more likely to graduate within four years. Exceptions will only be made for students whose permanent residence is within 15 kilometers of campus.

Listening Script:

(Male student): Hey, did you see this announcement about first-years having to live in dorms?

(Female student): Yeah, I just read it. And honestly, I think it’s a terrible idea.

(Male): Really? Why?

(Female): Well, first, they say living on campus improves academic performance, but that’s not true for everyone. Some students actually study better at home, in a quiet environment. I have a friend who lived in the dorms freshman year, and she said it was incredibly noisy — people playing music, talking in the hallways until 2 AM. She actually moved back home second semester and her grades went up. So forcing everyone into dorms could backfire academically.

(Male): That’s a good point. What’s your other concern?

(Female): The main one is financial. Dorm fees at this school are over six thousand dollars per year! For families who live just outside that 15-kilometer radius — let’s say 20 kilometers away — they’ll now be forced to pay thousands of dollars for housing their child could commute from home in thirty minutes. It’s a financial burden that many families simply can’t afford, especially in this economy. The exception policy is way too narrow.

(Male): I hadn’t considered that. You’re right — 15 kilometers is a really small radius. That probably includes almost nobody.

(Female): Exactly. So while I understand the university wants to build community, forcing it through a mandate that ignores individual circumstances is just unfair.

Task 2 Model Response:

“The announcement from the university housing office states that starting next semester, all first-year students will be required to live in on-campus dormitories. According to the notice, the goal is to help students integrate into campus life and improve academic performance, since research suggests on-campus students earn higher grades. The woman in the conversation disagrees with this new policy for two reasons. First, she argues that living on campus does not guarantee better academic performance for everyone. She gives the example of her friend who lived in the dorms and found them incredibly noisy — people were playing music and talking in the hallways late at night. Her friend actually moved back home the next semester and her grades improved. So the policy could have the opposite effect. Second, she points out the financial burden. Dorm fees are over six thousand dollars per year, and families who live just outside the 15-kilometer exception radius would be forced to pay this cost even if their child could easily commute. She believes this is an unfair financial strain on many families. That’s how the student feels about the announcement.”

Task 3 — Academic Reading + Lecture

Reading (45 seconds):

The Mere Exposure Effect The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon in which people develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. Repeated, unreinforced exposure to a stimulus is sufficient to enhance an individual’s attitude toward it. Importantly, the effect is strongest when the individual is not consciously aware of the exposure. This phenomenon has been demonstrated across various contexts, including product advertising, interpersonal attraction, and aesthetic preferences. The effect explains why advertisers often use brief, repeated exposures to brand logos rather than lengthy detailed presentations.

Listening Script:

(Professor): Alright, so the reading introduced the mere exposure effect, which is this idea that familiarity breeds liking — the more you’re exposed to something, the more you tend to like it, even if you’re not consciously aware of the exposure. Let me give you two examples from classic research that really bring this concept to life.

So, in one famous experiment from the late 1960s, psychologist Robert Zajonc — that’s spelled Z-A-J-O-N-C — had participants look at a series of made-up words on a screen. Some were shown only once, others five times, some ten times, and some twenty-five times. Afterwards, participants were asked to rate how much they “liked” each word. Here’s the key finding: the words shown more frequently were consistently rated more positively, even though participants had no idea they’d seen some words more than others. The exposure was minimal — just flashes on a screen — and participants couldn’t even distinguish which words they had seen more often. Yet their preferences were clearly influenced.

Now here’s a second, even more striking demonstration. Researchers had college students attend a large lecture course for an entire semester. Throughout the course, a female confederate — someone working with the researchers — would sit in the front row. Sometimes she attended only a few lectures, sometimes many. At the end of the semester, actual students were shown photographs of women and asked to rate their attractiveness. The confederate’s photo was among them. The result? The more often the confederate had attended lectures — in other words, the more exposure the students had to her — the higher they rated her attractiveness. And here’s the crucial detail: none of the students recognized her as someone from their class. The exposure was entirely passive — they weren’t interacting with her, just sharing the same room. And yet, mere exposure increased their liking. So these two experiments — one with made-up words, one with actual human faces — both demonstrate the same principle: simple, repeated exposure, even without awareness, increases liking.”

Task 3 Model Response:

“The reading passage introduces the concept of the mere exposure effect, which is the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply because they are exposed to them repeatedly, even without conscious awareness of that exposure. In the lecture, the professor gives two experiments to illustrate this idea. The first experiment, conducted by Robert Zajonc in the 1960s, involved showing participants made-up words on a screen. Some words appeared once, others five, ten, or twenty-five times. When participants were later asked to rate how much they liked each word, they consistently rated the more frequently shown words more positively, even though they couldn’t remember which words they’d seen more often. The second experiment involved a college lecture course attended by students and a female confederate who occasionally sat in the front row. At the end of the semester, students rated the confederate’s photo as more attractive when she had attended more lectures — meaning more exposure led to higher ratings. Critically, none of the students even recognized her as someone from their class. These two examples clearly demonstrate the mere exposure effect: repeated, passive exposure increases liking without conscious awareness.”

Task 4 — Academic Lecture Summary

Listening Script:

(Professor): Today we’re going to look at two major strategies that plants use to defend themselves against herbivores — animals that eat plants. Now, you might think of plants as passive, defenseless organisms, but in reality, they’ve evolved remarkably sophisticated defense mechanisms over millions of years. These defenses generally fall into two categories: physical defenses and chemical defenses.

Let’s start with physical defenses. These are structural features that make it physically difficult or unpleasant for herbivores to eat the plant. The most obvious example is thorns and spines. Think of a rose bush or a cactus — those sharp projections make it painful for animals to try to eat them, so herbivores learn to avoid these plants. But physical defenses go beyond just being prickly. Many plants have developed tough, fibrous leaves that are simply hard to chew and digest. Grasses, for instance, contain high levels of silica — basically tiny particles of glass — in their tissues. These silica particles wear down the teeth of grazing animals like cattle and horses over time. Some plants even produce sticky resins or latex that gums up the mouthparts of insects trying to feed on them. So physical defenses work by creating a mechanical barrier between the plant and whatever is trying to eat it.

Now, the second category, chemical defenses, is even more diverse and sophisticated. Instead of physical barriers, these plants produce toxic or repellent chemical compounds. A classic example is the nicotine produced by tobacco plants — nicotine is actually a powerful neurotoxin that kills insects. When a caterpillar starts chewing on a tobacco leaf, it ingests nicotine and is essentially poisoned. Another famous example is the capsaicin in chili peppers — that’s the compound that makes chilies taste spicy and hot to us. But here’s the fascinating twist: capsaicin doesn’t actually affect birds, who are important seed dispersers for chili plants. It specifically targets mammals, whose digestive systems would destroy the seeds. So the plant is using chemical warfare that’s precisely targeted — deterring the “wrong” consumers while still allowing the “right” consumers to eat the fruit and spread the seeds.

What’s really remarkable is that chemical defenses aren’t always passive. Some plants can actually ramp up their chemical production in response to being attacked. When certain plants detect that they’re being chewed on, they release volatile organic compounds into the air. These airborne chemicals serve as distress signals — they warn neighboring plants to start producing their own defensive chemicals, and in some cases, they even attract the natural predators of the insect that’s attacking the plant. It’s essentially a chemical call for help. So as you can see, plants are anything but defenseless — they work with chemical warfare and structural armor that’s been fine-tuned by millions of years of evolutionary pressure.

Task 4 Model Response:

“The professor discusses two major strategies plants use to defend themselves against herbivores: physical defenses and chemical defenses. The first strategy, physical defenses, involves structural features that make plants difficult or painful to eat. Examples include thorns and spines like those on rose bushes and cacti, as well as tough fibrous leaves containing silica — essentially tiny glass particles — that wear down the teeth of grazing animals. Some plants also produce sticky resins that gum up insect mouthparts. The second strategy, chemical defenses, involves producing toxic or repellent compounds. The professor gives the example of nicotine in tobacco plants, which acts as a neurotoxin that kills insects, and capsaicin in chili peppers, which deters mammals but interestingly does not affect birds, allowing them to spread the seeds. The professor also notes that some plants can actively increase their chemical defenses when attacked, releasing airborne distress signals that warn neighboring plants and sometimes even attract predators of the attacking insects. These two strategies show that plants have evolved remarkably sophisticated defense mechanisms.”

Practice Set 2

Task 1 — Independent

Question: When studying for an important exam, do you prefer to study alone or in a group? Use details and examples to support your answer.

Model Response:

“I definitely prefer studying alone when preparing for an important exam. The main reason is that studying alone allows me to go at my own pace and focus on my own weaknesses. For example, when I studied for my university entrance exam, I realized I was strong in reading comprehension but weak in grammar. By studying alone, I could spend 70% of my time drilling grammar exercises and only review reading briefly, which maximized my efficiency. In a group, I’d have to follow the group’s pace regardless of my personal needs. Another reason is that group study sessions often turn into social gatherings rather than productive study time. To give you an example, last semester I tried studying for a biology exam with three classmates. Within forty minutes, we were talking about weekend plans and ordering bubble tea. I ended up having to study everything again by myself at home anyway. So for serious exam preparation where every minute counts, I find solo studying far more effective.”

Task 2

Reading:

University Dining Services Announcement: Starting this fall, the main campus cafeteria will extend its operating hours from the current 7 AM - 8 PM to 6 AM - 11 PM. The extended hours aim to better serve students with early morning classes, evening study sessions, and extracurricular commitments. Additionally, the cafeteria will introduce a grab-and-go section offering pre-packaged sandwiches, salads, and beverages for students who do not have time for a sit-down meal.

Listening Script:

(Female student): Hey, did you see the cafeteria is going to stay open longer next semester?

(Male student): I did! And I think it’s fantastic news, honestly.

(Female): You think so? I’m not sure it’s necessary.

(Male): No, I really think it is. Here’s why. First, there are a lot of students who have commitments that make the current hours really inconvenient. I’m on the swimming team, and practice runs from 5 to 7 AM. By the time I get out and shower, it’s almost 8, and the cafeteria is closing. I basically never have time for breakfast unless I grab a granola bar from a vending machine. With the new 6 AM opening, I could go before practice and actually eat a real meal. There are plenty of other athletes and music students who practice early — this will help all of us.

(Female): Okay, that makes sense. What about the late hours?

(Male): That’s my second point. A lot of students, especially in majors like architecture and engineering, work in the design studios or labs until very late. My roommate is an architecture major, and she often works past ten at night. Currently, she either has to stop working to eat by 8, which breaks her concentration, or skip dinner entirely. Extending hours to 11 PM would be a game-changer for students like her. And I love the grab-and-go idea too — sometimes you really just want to grab something quickly between classes and run. So I think the university is actually listening to student needs for once.”

Task 2 Model Response:

“The dining services announcement states that the main campus cafeteria will extend its hours from 6 AM to 11 PM, and will also introduce a grab-and-go section for students in a hurry. The man in the conversation strongly supports these changes for two reasons. First, he explains that he is on the swimming team with practice from 5 to 7 AM, and by the time he finishes and showers, the cafeteria is nearly closed. He currently cannot eat a proper breakfast and has to settle for a granola bar. With the 6 AM opening, he could eat before practice. He adds that other athletes and music students with early commitments will benefit as well. Second, he points to students with demanding majors like architecture and engineering who often work in studios until late at night. He gives the example of his roommate, an architecture student who works past 10 PM and currently has to either interrupt her workflow to eat by 8 or skip dinner entirely. The extended hours to 11 PM would solve this problem. That’s why the man fully supports the dining services changes.”

Task 3

Reading:

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is modified by its consequences. Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur. The concept was developed by psychologist B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated it through experiments with animals. A key principle of operant conditioning is reinforcement — the process of strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence that the individual finds rewarding.

Listening Script:

(Professor): So the reading covers the basics of operant conditioning. Let me give you two classroom examples to make this concept more concrete.

In elementary school classrooms, teachers often use a token economy system. Here’s how it works: the teacher gives students tokens — which could be stickers, points, or even fake classroom currency — whenever they display desired behaviors, like raising their hand before speaking, helping a classmate, or completing homework on time. At the end of the week, students can exchange the tokens they’ve collected for rewards, like extra recess time, a small toy, or the chance to sit in a special chair. What’s happening here, psychologically, is positive reinforcement — the tokens function as a reward that increases the likelihood that students will repeat the good behaviors. The tokens themselves have no inherent value, but because they can be exchanged for desirable rewards, they become powerful behavior modifiers.

Now, here’s a different classroom scenario that illustrates negative reinforcement, which a lot of students confuse with punishment. But they’re actually very different. Imagine a classroom where every Friday, students take a weekly spelling quiz. The teacher announces that any student who gets a perfect score on today’s quiz will be exempt from the regular homework assignment over the weekend. So essentially, the teacher is removing an unpleasant thing — weekend homework — as a consequence for the desired behavior of doing well on the quiz. This is negative reinforcement: the removal of an aversive stimulus strengthens the behavior. Students study harder for the quiz because they want to avoid the homework, and each time they get a perfect score and have homework removed, the studying behavior is reinforced.

So in both cases — the token economy and the homework exemption — we see operant conditioning at work. In the first case, positive reinforcement adds a reward. In the second, negative reinforcement removes an undesirable obligation. Both increase the targeted behavior, just through different mechanisms.

Task 3 Model Response:

“The reading passage introduces operant conditioning, which is a learning process where behavior is shaped by its consequences — behaviors with positive outcomes are repeated, while those with negative outcomes are not. The professor illustrates this concept with two classroom examples. The first example is a token economy system, where elementary school teachers give students tokens or stickers for desired behaviors like raising their hand or helping classmates. Students can exchange these tokens at the end of the week for rewards like extra recess time. This demonstrates positive reinforcement because the token reward increases the likelihood of good behavior. The second example illustrates negative reinforcement, which the professor emphasizes is different from punishment. Here, a teacher excuses students from weekend homework if they score perfectly on a weekly spelling quiz. The removal of this unpleasant task — the homework — reinforces the behavior of studying hard for the quiz. Both examples clearly show how operant conditioning shapes behavior through different types of reinforcement.”

Task 4

Listening Script:

(Professor): Today we’re going to examine two different ways that animals navigate during their long-distance migrations. Migration is one of nature’s most impressive phenomena — birds flying thousands of kilometers, sea turtles crossing entire oceans, monarch butterflies traveling from Canada to Mexico. How do they find their way without GPS, without maps, without any of the tools we humans rely on? Today we’ll focus on two navigation methods: celestial navigation and magnetic sensing.

Let’s begin with celestial navigation, which means using the sun, moon, and stars to determine direction. Many bird species are masters of this technique. For example, the indigo bunting, a small songbird that migrates between North America and South America, has been shown in laboratory planetarium experiments to use star patterns to orient itself. Researchers placed these birds inside a planetarium where they could control the projected night sky. When they projected a normal spring sky, the birds oriented northward — exactly the direction they should fly in spring. But when researchers rotated the star pattern, the birds shifted their orientation accordingly. Even more remarkably, the birds don’t appear to learn specific constellations. Instead, they seem to learn the center of rotation of the night sky — the point around which all stars appear to revolve, which in the Northern Hemisphere is near the North Star, Polaris. By recognizing this stationary point, the bird can determine north.

Now, the second method, magnetic sensing, is equally fascinating. Many animals can actually detect the Earth’s magnetic field and use it like a built-in compass. Sea turtles provide a particularly well-documented example. Loggerhead sea turtles hatch on beaches in Florida, and as tiny hatchlings, they crawl into the ocean and begin a migration that takes them thousands of kilometers across the Atlantic. Researchers have demonstrated that these turtles can detect both the intensity and the inclination angle of the Earth’s magnetic field. Different locations on Earth have unique combinations of these magnetic parameters — essentially creating a magnetic signature for each geographic location. Young turtles appear to imprint on the magnetic signature of their natal beach, and years later, mature females use this magnetic memory to return to that exact same stretch of coastline to lay their own eggs.

What’s particularly interesting is that many animals use both systems, not just one. They might use celestial cues during clear weather and switch to magnetic sensing when the sky is overcast. It’s a redundant, fail-safe system refined by millions of years of evolution. So the next time you use your phone’s GPS to navigate, remember that a tiny songbird weighing less than an iPhone is doing something remarkably similar with nothing but its brain and the natural world.

Task 4 Model Response:

“The professor discusses two methods animals use to navigate during migration: celestial navigation and magnetic sensing. The first method, celestial navigation, involves using the sun, moon, and stars for orientation. The professor gives the example of the indigo bunting, a small bird that migrates between North and South America. In planetarium experiments, these birds oriented northward under a normal spring sky, but changed direction when researchers rotated the star pattern. The birds learn to recognize the stationary center point of the rotating night sky — near the North Star — to determine north. The second method is magnetic sensing, where animals detect the Earth’s magnetic field. The professor illustrates this with loggerhead sea turtles, which hatch on Florida beaches and migrate across the Atlantic. These turtles can detect magnetic field intensity and inclination, which create unique magnetic signatures at different locations. Hatchlings imprint on their natal beach’s magnetic signature and mature females use this memory to return years later to lay eggs. Many animals actually use both systems as a redundant backup.”

Practice Set 3

Task 1 — Independent

Question: Do you agree or disagree: “Young people today spend too much time on their phones and not enough time interacting with people in real life.” Use specific examples.

Model Response:

“I agree with this statement, but I think we need to be careful about oversimplifying the issue. First of all, the amount of time young people spend on their phones is objectively massive. For example, a study published last year found that the average teenager spends over seven hours a day on screen-based activities, not including schoolwork. That’s essentially a full-time job of screen time. When you spend that many hours staring at a screen, there’s simply not enough time left for face-to-face interactions. I’ve noticed this in my own life — sometimes I’ll be sitting in a room with my friends, but every single one of us is scrolling on our phones instead of actually talking. So the phone time does displace real social interaction. However, I also want to acknowledge that phones enable meaningful connections that wouldn’t be possible otherwise. For example, my cousin moved to Australia for university, and without video calls and messaging apps, we would have completely lost touch. Our relationship is maintained entirely through our phones, but I wouldn’t say it’s less real than face-to-face interaction. So while I agree young people spend too much time on phones and should prioritize in-person connection, we shouldn’t dismiss the genuine value that digital communication provides.”

Task 2

Reading:

Campus Bookstore Announcement: The university bookstore will transition to a digital-first model beginning next academic year. Physical textbooks will no longer be stocked in-store; instead, students will purchase or rent digital versions through the bookstore’s online platform. The university believes this change will reduce textbook costs for students by up to 40% and eliminate the environmental waste of printing millions of pages. Students who prefer physical copies may order them through the online platform for home delivery, with an additional printing fee.

Listening Script:

(Male student): I just read about the bookstore going digital-only. What do you think?

(Female student): Honestly, I’m really frustrated. I don’t think the university thought this through.

(Male): But it’s supposed to save money, right? That sounds good.

(Female): Well, that’s what they claim, but I’m not convinced. The first problem is that digital textbooks don’t actually work well for everyone. I’ve tried using e-textbooks before, and I find it incredibly difficult to concentrate when I’m reading on a screen. My eyes get tired after about twenty minutes, and I can’t highlight or write notes in the margins the way I can with a physical book. For someone like me who really needs to actively annotate and engage with the text, a PDF on a screen is just not equivalent. The research actually supports this — multiple studies have found that reading comprehension is lower on screens compared to paper.

(Male): I hadn’t thought about that. And they’re still charging a fee for physical copies, right?

(Female): Exactly — that’s my second concern. They’re advertising it as 40% cheaper, but that only applies to the digital-only option. If you actually want a physical book, you have to pay extra for “printing fees” on top of the regular price, which could end up being more expensive than buying used physical books, which you can’t do anymore if the store stops stocking them entirely. And what about students who don’t have reliable internet access, or who share a single family computer? This policy assumes every student has a personal laptop or tablet and constant internet access, and that’s simply not the case. It creates an equity problem.

(Male): That’s fair. So basically it saves money only if you’re willing and able to go fully digital.

(Female): Right, and the environmental claim is debatable too — manufacturing and powering devices for reading also has an environmental cost. So I think the policy is well-intentioned but poorly executed.

Task 2 Model Response:

“The announcement states that the university bookstore will shift to a digital-first model. Physical textbooks will no longer be stocked, and students will purchase digital versions online, which the university claims will reduce costs by up to 40% and benefit the environment. The woman in the conversation disagrees with this change for two main reasons. First, she argues that digital textbooks simply don’t work well for all students. She shares her personal experience of finding it hard to concentrate on screens — her eyes get tired after about twenty minutes, and she can’t highlight or annotate the way she can with physical books. She also mentions research showing lower reading comprehension on screens versus paper. Second, she is concerned about cost and fairness. The 40% savings only applies to digital versions; students who want physical books must pay extra printing fees, potentially making them more expensive than used physical books that would no longer be available. She further points out that the policy assumes every student has a personal device and reliable internet, which is not true, creating an equity problem. That’s why the woman opposes the new bookstore policy.”

Task 3

Reading:

The Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias in which people estimate the probability or frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Events that are vivid, recent, or emotionally charged are more “available” in memory, leading people to overestimate their likelihood. Conversely, events that are less memorable tend to be underestimated. This mental shortcut, identified by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, often leads to systematic errors in judgment and decision-making.

Listening Script:

(Professor): So the reading describes the availability heuristic. Let me give you two everyday examples that show how this bias operates, and how it can lead us to make poor judgments.

The first example involves our perception of rare but dramatic risks. After a highly publicized plane crash, many people become afraid of flying and choose to drive long distances instead. But here’s the problem with that decision: statistically, flying is dramatically safer than driving per kilometer traveled. Your chance of dying in a car crash is about one in five thousand over a lifetime, while commercial air travel fatalities are roughly one in eleven million. But because plane crashes are vivid — they make the news, there are dramatic images, they’re discussed for weeks — they’re extremely “available” in our memory, and we overestimate the risk. Meanwhile, the roughly one hundred Americans who die daily in car crashes don’t make national headlines, so these events have low cognitive availability. The TV footage of a single plane crash on the evening news makes flying feel dangerous, even though the objective data says it’s safer than the car trip to the airport.

Here’s a second, more personal example. Let’s say you’re trying to decide whether your relationship with your partner is going well or poorly. You’re more likely to base your assessment on the events you can easily recall. If you recently had a big argument — which is emotionally vivid and easy to remember — you might conclude the relationship is in trouble, even if, on balance, you’ve had far more positive interactions than negative ones over the past month. Similarly, if your partner just did something particularly romantic or thoughtful, you might overestimate how smooth the relationship is, ignoring deeper, less memorable problems. In both cases, the most mentally “available” experience — vivid, recent, or emotional — disproportionately shapes your judgment, whether or not it’s actually representative of the bigger picture. So the availability heuristic helps us make quick judgments by using what is most accessible in our memory, but as these examples show, what’s accessible isn’t always what’s accurate.”

Task 3 Model Response:

“The reading passage introduces the availability heuristic, a cognitive bias where people judge how common or likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind. Vivid or emotional events are more memorable, causing people to overestimate their frequency. The professor provides two examples to illustrate this concept. The first involves risk perception after plane crashes. When a plane crash is widely publicized with dramatic images on the news, people become afraid of flying and choose to drive instead. However, statistically, driving is far more dangerous — your lifetime risk of dying in a car crash is about one in five thousand, compared to one in eleven million for commercial flying. The plane crash is vivid and memorable, so we overestimate the risk, while daily car fatalities go unnoticed. The second example involves relationships. If you recently had a big argument with your partner, that emotionally charged event is highly available in memory, and you might incorrectly judge the entire relationship as troubled, even if there have been more positive interactions overall. Both examples show how the availability heuristic can lead us to make judgments that conflict with objective reality.”

Task 4

Listening Script:

(Professor): Okay, let’s continue our discussion of early childhood development. Today I want to talk about two important concepts in how children acquire language: overgeneralization and underextension. These are normal, predictable stages that almost all children go through, and they actually tell us a lot about how the brain processes and organizes linguistic information.

Let’s start with overgeneralization, also called overregularization. This happens when a child learns a grammatical rule and then applies it too broadly — including to cases that are exceptions to the rule. The classic example involves English past tense verbs. A young child will first learn individual irregular past tense forms like “went,” “ate,” and “broke” by memorizing them one by one. Then, somewhere around age three or four, they discover the regular past tense rule: add “-ed” to the end. And suddenly, they start saying things like “I goed to the park” and “I eated my lunch” and “The toy is breaked.” Now, interestingly, they were saying “went” and “ate” correctly before! So it looks like they’re going backwards, but actually this is a sign of cognitive progress. They’ve internalized the rule, but they haven’t yet learned the exceptions. Over time, with exposure and correction, they learn which verbs follow the rule and which don’t.

Now, underextension is essentially the opposite problem, but equally revealing. This occurs when a child uses a word too narrowly — applying it only to a specific instance, rather than to the broader category. A common example involves the word “dog.” A child might learn the word “dog” in reference to the family’s golden retriever. But then, when she sees a neighbor’s poodle, or a chihuahua, or a picture of a dog in a book, she might not identify any of those as a “dog” because they don’t match her narrow prototype. She has underextended the meaning — she thinks “dog” refers only to that one specific animal, not to the entire category. Similarly, a child might learn “car” in reference to the family sedan, but not apply the term to a pickup truck, a van, or a sports car. Over time, through exposure to varied examples and corrective feedback, children broaden these categories to their proper scope.

What makes these two phenomena so interesting from a developmental perspective is that they appear to operate in opposite directions, but both are evidence of the same underlying process: the child is actively constructing a mental grammar and a mental dictionary, testing hypotheses about how language works, and gradually refining them based on the evidence they encounter. It’s a remarkable reminder that learning language isn’t just passive imitation — it’s an active, creative, and sometimes error-filled process of discovery.

Task 4 Model Response:

“The professor discusses two stages in children’s language development: overgeneralization and underextension. The first, overgeneralization or overregularization, occurs when children learn a grammatical rule and apply it too broadly, even to exceptions. The professor gives the example of English past tense verbs. Around age three or four, after learning individual irregular forms like ‘went’ and ‘ate,’ children discover the ‘-ed’ rule and start saying things like ‘goed’ and ‘eated.’ Interestingly, they had previously been saying these verbs correctly, but this apparent regression actually signals cognitive progress — they’ve internalized the rule but not yet the exceptions. The second stage is underextension, the opposite problem, where children use a word too narrowly. The example given is a child who only calls the family’s golden retriever a ‘dog’ and doesn’t identify other breeds or pictures as dogs because they don’t match the child’s narrow prototype. Over time, with varied exposure and correction, children expand these categories appropriately. The professor explains that both phenomena show children are actively constructing mental grammar — testing hypotheses and refining them through experience, rather than just passively imitating.”

Practice Set 4

Task 1 — Independent

Question: Some universities require students to take courses in many different subjects. Others require students to specialize in one specific area. Which approach do you think is better? Why?

Model Response:

“I believe requiring students to take courses across many subjects is the better approach, at least at the undergraduate level. First of all, broad exposure helps students discover what they are truly passionate about. For example, when I entered university, I was absolutely certain I wanted to major in business. But as part of the general education requirements, I had to take an introductory psychology course, and I was captivated — I ended up double-majoring in business and psychology. If my university had forced early specialization, I would have never discovered this passion. Secondly, in today’s world, the most important problems require interdisciplinary thinking. To give you an example, tackling climate change requires not just environmental scientists, but economists to design carbon pricing policies, psychologists to understand why people resist behavioral changes, and communication experts to craft effective messaging. A person who only has deep knowledge in one narrow area is ill-equipped for this reality. While specialization certainly has its place, especially at the graduate level, I think universities should ensure every undergraduate leaves with both breadth and depth.”

Task 2

Reading:

Student Health Center Notice: Due to increasing demand, the Student Health Center will implement an appointment-only system starting next month. Walk-in visits will no longer be accepted. Students must schedule appointments at least 24 hours in advance through the online portal. The Center states this change will reduce wait times and allow medical staff to better prepare for each visit. For urgent medical issues, a limited number of same-day emergency slots will be reserved each day, available on a first-come, first-served basis.

Listening Script:

(Female student): I can’t believe the health center is going appointment-only. This is going to be a disaster.

(Male student): Really? I thought the idea was to reduce wait times.

(Female): That’s the theory, but in practice, it ignores how students actually get sick. Here’s the thing — most student illnesses are unpredictable, right? You don’t know you’re going to wake up with a fever or a sore throat twenty-four hours in advance. Under this new system, if I wake up feeling terrible on a Tuesday morning, I have to book an appointment for Wednesday at the earliest. What am I supposed to do in the meantime? Just suffer? And by then, I might be even worse.

(Male): But they said there would be emergency slots available.

(Female): Yeah, they mentioned “a limited number” of same-day slots, which is completely useless if you’re not one of the first few people to call. And here’s my bigger concern — students are going to misdiagnose themselves. You have a bad cough, you think “oh, it’s just a cold, I’ll book an appointment for tomorrow,” and you skip the emergency slot. But what if it’s actually something more serious, like bronchitis? Students aren’t doctors! The old walk-in system, for all its flaws, meant you could be seen immediately if something felt wrong. Now you have to play this guessing game about whether your symptoms are serious enough to use an emergency slot.

(Male): I actually agree, especially about the self-diagnosis problem.

(Female): And here’s what really frustrates me — they didn’t even try a hybrid approach first. Why not keep walk-in hours for, say, 8 to 10 AM each day, and then have the rest of the day be appointment-only? That would serve both the predictable check-up needs and the unpredictable illness needs. This all-or-nothing approach feels like they prioritized administrative convenience over student health.

Task 2 Model Response:

“The Student Health Center notice announces that starting next month, the center will switch to an appointment-only system, eliminating walk-in visits. Students must book appointments 24 hours in advance, though limited same-day emergency slots will be available. The woman disagrees strongly with this change for two main reasons. First, she argues that student illnesses are unpredictable — you don’t know 24 hours in advance that you’ll wake up sick. If she has a fever on Tuesday, she’d have to wait until Wednesday, suffering in the meantime. She also dismisses the emergency slots as useless if you’re not among the first callers. Her second, more significant concern is that students will have to self-diagnose to decide whether their symptoms justify using an emergency slot. She gives the example of a cough that seems mild but could actually indicate bronchitis. Students aren’t medical professionals and may make dangerous misjudgments. She suggests a hybrid system — walk-in hours in the morning and appointments the rest of the day — and argues the center prioritized administrative convenience over student health. That’s how the woman feels about the new appointment-only policy.”

Task 3

Reading:

Competitive Exclusion Principle In ecology, the competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for exactly the same limited resource cannot coexist at constant population levels. When one species has even a slight advantage over another, the better-adapted species will eventually dominate and the other will either adapt to use a different resource, move to a different habitat, or face local extinction. This principle explains why closely related species often develop distinct ecological niches.

Listening Script:

(Professor): Alright, the reading introduces the competitive exclusion principle. Let me illustrate this with a classic example from the natural world involving two species of barnacles that live along rocky coastlines.

So, there are these two species of barnacles — let’s call them the larger Balanus barnacles and the smaller Chthamalus barnacles. Now, if you look at a rocky shoreline in Scotland, where this was first studied by ecologist Joseph Connell in the 1960s, you’ll notice something interesting about where these two species live. The smaller Chthamalus barnacles are found higher up on the rocks, in what’s called the upper intertidal zone, while the larger Balanus barnacles occupy the lower part of the rocks.

Now, Connell wanted to understand why the two species occupied different vertical zones. He hypothesized that they weren’t simply choosing different habitats by preference — instead, competition might be forcing them apart. So he designed a clever field experiment. First, he removed all the Balanus barnacles from the lower zone and observed what happened. The result? Chthamalus barnacles quickly moved down and colonized that lower zone — and they thrived there. They actually grew faster and reproduced more successfully in the lower zone, where they’re submerged for longer periods. So the small barnacles clearly preferred the lower zone; they just couldn’t survive there when the big barnacles were present.

But what was the mechanism of this exclusion? Connell observed that the larger Balanus barnacles physically crushed, lifted, or undercut the smaller ones as they grew, simply because of their size. It wasn’t about food competition directly — it was about physical space. The Chthamalus could survive being out of the water longer, which gave them a refuge in the upper zone where Balanus couldn’t survive. So the Chthamalus retreated to a habitat that was less ideal but where their competitor couldn’t follow. They didn’t go extinct locally — they shifted their realized niche to be narrower than their fundamental niche.

This is a textbook illustration of the competitive exclusion principle in action. The two species couldn’t coexist in the same exact space, but because Chthamalus had a broader tolerance for dry conditions, it found a refuge and persisted. The competition didn’t eliminate the weaker species — it just reshaped where it could live. And this pattern — species partitioning space to reduce competition — is exactly what we see all across nature.”

Task 3 Model Response:

“The reading passage introduces the competitive exclusion principle, which states that two species competing for the same limited resource cannot coexist indefinitely — the weaker competitor must adapt, move, or face extinction. The professor illustrates this with Connell’s classic barnacle experiment along Scottish coastlines. There are two barnacle species: larger Balanus barnacles living in the lower rocky zone, and smaller Chthamalus barnacles in the upper zone. To understand this separation, Connell removed all Balanus from the lower zone. The result was striking — Chthamalus quickly colonized the lower zone and actually thrived better there, growing faster and reproducing more successfully. This showed that Chthamalus preferred the lower zone but was physically excluded — Balanus literally crushed and displaced them. However, Chthamalus survived because it could tolerate the drier upper zone, where Balanus could not live. So instead of going extinct, Chthamalus shifted its realized niche inward from its fundamental niche. This experiment perfectly demonstrates the competitive exclusion principle: competition forced the weaker species into a less ideal but viable refuge, showing how species partition space to coexist.”

Task 4

Listening Script:

(Professor): Today we’re going to discuss two different approaches to leadership that have been extensively studied in organizational psychology: transactional leadership and transformational leadership. These represent fundamentally different philosophies about how to motivate people and achieve results.

Transactional leadership is the more traditional style. It’s based on a system of rewards and punishments — what we sometimes call the “carrot and stick” approach. A transactional leader sets clear expectations and then exchanges rewards for meeting those expectations. So for example, a sales manager using transactional leadership might set a monthly sales target and promise a bonus to anyone who exceeds it, while putting underperformers on a performance improvement plan. The relationship is essentially contractual and transactional — you do this, you get that. Transactional leadership works well in stable environments where tasks are clearly defined and measurable. It’s very effective for maintaining the status quo and achieving predictable short-term results. However, its weakness is that it rarely inspires people to go above and beyond — employees do exactly what’s required to receive the reward and nothing more. It’s compliance, not commitment.

Now, transformational leadership operates very differently. Instead of relying on external rewards, transformational leaders inspire and motivate people by connecting their work to a larger purpose or vision. These leaders focus on four key behaviors, sometimes called the “four I’s”: idealized influence, which means leading by example and earning trust; inspirational motivation, which means articulating a compelling vision for the future; intellectual stimulation, which means challenging people to think creatively and question assumptions; and individualized consideration, meaning they treat each team member as a unique individual, mentoring and coaching them. A classic example of transformational leadership is someone like Steve Jobs at Apple. He didn’t motivate engineers by saying “if you ship this product, I’ll give you a bonus.” He motivated them by saying “we’re going to put a dent in the universe” — connecting their daily coding work to a grand, inspiring vision.

Research by organizational psychologists like Bernard Bass has shown that transformational leadership generally produces higher levels of employee satisfaction, creativity, and long-term performance than transactional leadership alone. However — and this is important — the most effective leaders actually use both styles, depending on the situation. In a crisis where quick compliance is needed, transactional approaches work better. In creative or innovation-focused environments, transformational approaches are superior. So it’s not about one style being universally better — it’s about knowing when to use each.”

Task 4 Model Response:

“The professor discusses two contrasting leadership styles: transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is the traditional style based on rewards and punishments. The professor gives the example of a sales manager who offers bonuses for meeting targets and puts underperformers on improvement plans. The relationship is contractual — you perform, you get rewarded. This style works well in stable, measurable environments, but its weakness is that it produces compliance rather than true commitment — employees do only what’s required. Transformational leadership, by contrast, inspires through vision and purpose rather than external rewards. The professor describes the four key behaviors known as the four I’s: idealized influence or leading by example, inspirational motivation through compelling vision, intellectual stimulation by encouraging creative thinking, and individualized consideration through personal mentoring. Steve Jobs at Apple is given as an example, who motivated engineers by connecting their work to a grand mission rather than offering bonuses. Research shows transformational leadership produces higher satisfaction and creativity, but the most effective leaders actually use both styles depending on the situation — transactional for crises requiring quick compliance, transformational for creative environments.”

Practice Set 5

Task 1 — Independent

Question: Some people believe that taking risks is essential for achieving success. Others believe that careful planning and avoiding risks is the better path. What is your opinion?

Model Response:

“I believe that calculated risk-taking is essential for meaningful success, but it has to be strategic, not reckless. First of all, virtually every breakthrough in human history came from someone taking a risk. For example, when Elon Musk invested his entire fortune from selling PayPal into SpaceX and Tesla, both companies nearly went bankrupt multiple times. If he had played it safe, we probably wouldn’t have commercially viable electric cars or reusable rockets today. These kinds of world-changing innovations require betting on something that might fail. Secondly, on a more personal level, avoiding risks often means missing transformative opportunities. To give you an example, I once had to decide between staying in a comfortable job in my hometown and moving to a new city for a challenging but exciting position. It was terrifying to leave everything I knew, but taking that risk completely changed my career trajectory for the better. If I had chosen the safe path, I would have wondered ‘what if’ for the rest of my life. However, I want to emphasize that it’s about calculated risks — you should gather information, assess the worst-case scenario, and make sure you can handle failure. Blind risk-taking is gambling. So I think the best path combines boldness with preparation.”

Task 2

Reading:

Computer Lab Policy Change: Effective next month, all campus computer labs will require students to log in using their university ID cards. Currently, the labs are open-access and anyone can walk in and use a computer. The university states that the new ID card system will prevent non-students from using campus resources, reduce theft of computer equipment, and allow the IT department to track usage patterns to better allocate resources.

Listening Script:

(Male student): Have you heard about the new computer lab ID policy?

(Female student): Yeah, I read the email. I actually think it’s a pretty reasonable change.

(Male): Really? I thought people would be annoyed — it seems like unnecessary hassle.

(Female): I get why you’d think that, but let me explain why I support it. First of all, there have been real security problems in the labs. Last semester, someone had their laptop stolen from the main library lab, and just two months ago, I walked into the engineering lab and almost every computer was occupied by people who I’m pretty sure weren’t students — they didn’t even seem to be doing academic work. Some were just browsing social media or watching videos. Meanwhile, actual students with assignments due couldn’t find a free computer. That’s frustrating and unfair, since our tuition pays for these facilities.

(Male): Okay, that’s fair. But having to carry your ID everywhere and scan in is still annoying.

(Female): I mean, we already carry our IDs everywhere anyway — you need it for the library, the gym, meal plans, exam check-ins… adding computer labs to the list doesn’t really create a new burden. And here’s my second point — the tracking data could actually lead to improvements. If IT sees that the business school lab is always packed at 2 PM while the science building lab is half empty, they could adjust staffing, extend hours at the busy location, or even add more computers where they’re needed. Without usage data, they’re just guessing. So yeah, it’s a slight inconvenience, but the benefits — preventing theft, ensuring student access, and better resource planning — make it worth it in my opinion.”

Task 2 Model Response:

“The announcement states that all campus computer labs will now require students to log in using university ID cards, replacing the current open-access system. The purpose is to prevent non-student usage, reduce equipment theft, and allow IT to track usage data. The woman in the conversation supports this change for two reasons. First, she points to actual security and access problems. She mentions a laptop theft in the library lab last semester, and describes visiting the engineering lab to find computers occupied by non-students browsing social media while actual students with assignments had to wait. She argues this is unfair since tuition pays for these facilities. Second, she believes the tracking data will improve resource allocation. If IT can see which labs are crowded at specific times, they can adjust staffing, extend hours, or add computers where needed — rather than guessing. She also dismisses the inconvenience argument, noting that students already carry IDs for the library, gym, and meal plans, so adding computer labs is a minimal additional burden. That’s why the woman supports the new ID card policy.”

Task 3

Reading:

The Flynn Effect The Flynn effect refers to the observed, sustained increase in IQ scores across populations over time. Since IQ testing began in the early 20th century, average scores have risen by approximately 3 points per decade. This phenomenon, named after researcher James Flynn, has been documented in over 30 countries. Notably, the gains are larger on fluid intelligence tests, which measure abstract reasoning and problem-solving with novel problems, than on crystallized intelligence tests, which measure accumulated knowledge and vocabulary.

Listening Script:

(Professor): The reading introduces the Flynn effect, the steady rise in IQ scores over the past century. Now, you might wonder — are we actually getting smarter? And if so, why? Let me walk you through the leading explanations that researchers have proposed.

The first major explanation relates to changes in education and test-taking familiarity. A hundred years ago, most people received minimal formal education, and the idea of sitting down to take a standardized test was unfamiliar. Today, children in developed countries spend a decade or more in school, constantly tested and evaluated. This has made people much better at the specific kinds of abstract reasoning that IQ tests measure — categorizing objects, recognizing patterns, completing sequences. There’s even research showing that exposure to video games, of all things, improves the specific spatial reasoning skills that appear on certain IQ subtests. So part of the Flynn effect may reflect increased test sophistication, not necessarily increased raw intelligence.

A second explanation points to improved nutrition and health. Brain development depends heavily on adequate nutrition in early childhood, and over the past century, there have been enormous improvements in childhood nutrition across most of the world. Better-nourished children’s brains simply develop more fully. Additionally, reductions in exposure to environmental toxins like lead — which is known to impair cognitive development — may have boosted average scores. Lead was removed from gasoline and paint in most developed countries throughout the late 20th century, and this timing correlates with some of the IQ gains.

Now here’s the really interesting twist that makes the Flynn effect particularly mysterious. In recent decades, several developed countries — including Norway, Denmark, Britain, and possibly the United States — have seen the Flynn effect slow down, stop, or even reverse. This is sometimes called the “reverse Flynn effect.” If the gains were purely about better education and nutrition, which should keep improving, why would scores start declining? Some researchers suggest it might be due to changes in media consumption — less reading of complex texts and more passive screen time — or even genetic factors like dysgenic fertility patterns, though these explanations remain highly controversial.

So the Flynn effect raises fascinating questions about what IQ tests actually measure. Are we getting smarter? Yes, probably, but the picture is more nuanced than a simple yes-or-no answer. And the recent reversal in some countries reminds us that cognitive trends can change in ways we don’t fully understand.

Task 3 Model Response:

“The reading introduces the Flynn effect, which is the steady rise in average IQ scores by about 3 points per decade across the 20th century, particularly on fluid intelligence tests. The professor discusses two main explanations for this phenomenon. The first is improved education and test familiarity. A century ago, most people had minimal schooling and weren’t used to standardized testing. Today, children spend years in school being tested, which has made them much better at the abstract pattern recognition that IQ tests measure. The professor even mentions research suggesting video games may improve spatial reasoning skills that appear on IQ tests. The second explanation involves better nutrition and reduced exposure to toxins like lead. Better childhood nutrition supports fuller brain development, and the removal of lead from gasoline and paint correlates with IQ gains. Interestingly, the professor notes that several developed countries have recently experienced a ‘reverse Flynn effect,’ where scores have stopped rising or declined, possibly due to changes in media consumption patterns. This reversal complicates the picture and raises questions about what IQ tests truly measure.”

Task 4

Listening Script:

(Professor): In today’s lecture, we’ll explore two distinct strategies that human societies have historically used to manage water in arid environments, where water is scarce and unpredictable. I’m referring to what anthropologists and geographers call supply-side strategies and demand-side strategies. Both aim to ensure water availability, but they approach the problem from completely different angles.

Supply-side strategies focus on increasing the total amount of available water. The logic is straightforward — if there isn’t enough water, find more or create more. The most ambitious examples of this approach are massive infrastructure projects designed to move water from where it’s abundant to where it’s needed. A prime historical example is the Roman aqueduct system. Ancient Rome, home to over a million people, required an enormous water supply. The Romans built hundreds of kilometers of aqueducts that channeled water from springs and rivers in the surrounding hills directly into the city. Gravity alone moved the water through precisely engineered stone channels that maintained a steady, slight downward slope over dozens of kilometers. At its peak, Rome’s aqueducts delivered an estimated one million cubic meters of water daily. In the modern era, the same supply-side logic drives projects like the massive dams, reservoirs, and inter-basin transfer systems we see around the world.

Demand-side strategies, in contrast, don’t try to increase supply — they try to reduce the amount of water needed. These strategies work with human behavior rather than against nature. A fascinating historical example comes from the Nabataean civilization, the people who built the city of Petra in what is now Jordan, one of the driest places on Earth. Instead of trying to bring massive quantities of water from elsewhere, the Nabataeans developed extraordinary techniques for capturing and conserving every single drop of rain that fell locally. They carved intricate channels and cisterns into the sandstone cliffs surrounding their city to harvest rainwater. They designed their terraced agricultural fields with rock walls that slowed water runoff, allowing more moisture to seep into the soil. And crucially, they cultivated drought-resistant crops like date palms and olives rather than water-intensive crops. Their entire civilization was organized around water conservation. It’s estimated that their water harvesting systems allowed Petra to support a population of around thirty thousand people in a desert that receives less than 150 millimeters of rain annually.

These two approaches — supply-side and demand-side — represent fundamentally different relationships with the environment. Supply-side strategies seek to overcome environmental constraints; demand-side strategies seek to adapt to them. The Romans conquered aridity with engineering; the Nabataeans negotiated with it. And understanding both is essential as we face modern water challenges in an era of climate change.

Task 4 Model Response:

“The professor discusses two strategies societies use to manage water in dry environments: supply-side strategies and demand-side strategies. Supply-side strategies increase available water, typically through large infrastructure. The professor gives the example of Roman aqueducts that supplied ancient Rome from distant springs, delivering about one million cubic meters of water daily through gravity-powered stone channels spanning hundreds of kilometers. Modern equivalents include dams and inter-basin water transfers. Demand-side strategies, by contrast, reduce the amount of water needed by working with human behavior and available resources. The professor illustrates this with the Nabataean civilization at Petra in modern-day Jordan. Rather than importing water, they developed sophisticated rainwater harvesting — carving channels and cisterns into sandstone cliffs, building terraced fields with rock walls to slow runoff, and cultivating drought-resistant crops like date palms and olives. This system supported about thirty thousand people in a desert receiving less than 150 millimeters of rain annually. The professor concludes that these approaches represent different environmental philosophies — Romans conquered aridity with engineering while Nabataeans adapted to it, and both perspectives are crucial for addressing modern water challenges.”

八、口說自我檢核表 (Self-Evaluation Checklist)

每次練習口說錄音完後，用這個檢核表給自己評分：

表達力 (Delivery)

項目	是	否	備註
語速適中，沒有太快或太慢
沒有明顯的長時間停頓 (over 3 seconds)
語調有變化，不是單調的機器人語調
發音大致清楚可理解
在時間結束前正好講完 (沒有超時也沒講不完)
沒有太多 “um”、“uh”、“like” 的過度填充詞

語言使用 (Language Use)

項目	是	否	備註
使用適當的學術詞彙
沒有重大文法錯誤（時態、主謂一致）
句子結構多樣（不是全部簡單句）
連接詞使用正確 (first, second, however, therefore)
正確使用代名詞，沒有混淆 he/she/it

主題發展 (Topic Development)

項目	是	否	備註
清楚回答了題目問的內容
有提出具體例子或細節支持論點
Task 2-4：正確摘要了閱讀和聽力的重點
Task 2-4：沒有加入個人意見（整合題不能給意見）
內容有邏輯組織，不是東講一個西講一個
沒有離題或講跟題目無關的內容

計分方式

17-18 個勾：相當於 Raw Score 4 (滿分)
14-16 個勾：相當於 Raw Score 3
10-13 個勾：相當於 Raw Score 2
5-9 個勾：相當於 Raw Score 1
0-4 個勾：相當於 Raw Score 0

威威老師小提醒

練口說最有效的秘訣：錄音 → 回聽 → 重錄。同一題至少練三遍。第一次練習看時間壓力下的自然反應，第二次修正內容和結構，第三次優化用詞和流暢度。每題練三遍的效果遠大於一次練十題。

威威老師的最後一句話

口說是所有科目中最容易讓台灣學生害怕的——我們的文化本來就不擅長開口表達自己。

但 TOEFL 口說一點都不神秘——它本質上就是：

「一個格式化的簡報比賽」

把模板背起來、過渡語記好、練習計時回答——你會發現自己越講越順！

3 大成功要素：

錄音 → 回聽 → 重錄（每題至少練 3 遍）

模板熟到反射動作（不要臨場想結構）

錄音時間控制（45 秒講 80-100 字、60 秒 110-140 字）

我們考場上見！🎤🚂

回到： TOEFL 總覽 | 跨技能： 閱讀 | 聽力 | 寫作

TOEFL-Speaking

威威老師的 TOEFL Speaking 口說完全攻略 🎤🎓

一、測驗基本資訊

二、四大題型總覽

二、Task 1：獨立意見題 (Independent Choice)

題型格式

時間分配

答題模板

Task 1 萬用句型庫

15 個常見題目 + 45 秒示範回答

Topic 1: City vs. Countryside

Topic 2: Online vs. In-Person Classes

Topic 3: Traveling Alone vs. Traveling with Others

Topic 4: Saving Money vs. Spending on Experiences

Topic 5: Learning a New Skill — Self-Taught vs. Taking a Class

Topic 6: Working in a Team vs. Working Alone

Topic 7: Reading News Online vs. Traditional Newspapers

Topic 8: Studying in the Morning vs. at Night

Topic 9: Giving Gifts — Practical vs. Sentimental

Topic 10: Fast Food vs. Home-Cooked Meals

Topic 11: Watching Movies at Home vs. in the Theater

Topic 12: Job with High Salary vs. Job You Enjoy

Topic 13: Public Transportation vs. Driving a Car

Topic 14: Learning Through Reading vs. Learning Through Doing

Topic 15: Fixed Schedule vs. Flexible Schedule

三、Task 2：校園公告 + 對話整合題

題型格式

答題模板 (Task 2)

Task 2 筆記框架

Task 2 必備過渡語

四、Task 3：學術閱讀 + 講座整合題

題型格式

答題模板 (Task 3)

Task 3 筆記框架

五、Task 4：純學術講座摘要題

題型格式

答題模板 (Task 4)

Task 4 筆記框架

六、台灣學生常見發音問題

子音篇

母音篇

節奏與語調

七、五回完整練習套組

Practice Set 1

Task 1 — Independent

Task 2 — Campus Announcement + Conversation

Task 3 — Academic Reading + Lecture

Task 4 — Academic Lecture Summary

Practice Set 2

Task 1 — Independent

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

Practice Set 3

Task 1 — Independent

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

Practice Set 4

Task 1 — Independent

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

Practice Set 5

Task 1 — Independent

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

八、口說自我檢核表 (Self-Evaluation Checklist)

表達力 (Delivery)

語言使用 (Language Use)

主題發展 (Topic Development)

計分方式

威威學習信

關係圖譜

目錄

反向連結